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CHAPTER 14

Crisis Intervention and Prevention in Higher Education

Nathaniel Ivers

For many students, college and university campuses may be viewed as bastions against many of the ills and plights common to society—places where enlight- enment and transcendence occur unabated. Although such a vision of higher

education as sanctuaries nestled among manicured campuses appears idyllic and ideal, it does not recognize many realities faced by many students, staff, faculty, and administrators in these settings. For other students, they may have little time to enjoy campus communities and resources as they balance full-time work; family obligations; and the stresses of class attendance, homework, and the inevitable life stressors. These stressors are prevalent in college populations. In a recent study of more than 53,000 presenting concerns at college counseling centers, Pérez-Rojas et al. (2017) found that students listed their top concerns as anxiety, depression, stress, family issues, academic performance, relationship problems, self-esteem, adjust- ment, and sleep problems. Students, faculty, and staff at colleges and universities navigate these academic and vocational transitions and stresses while often facing incidents of bullying, sexual harassment, sexual assault, and physical violence.

Higher Education Settings and Contexts There are more than 4,500 college and university communities in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019) and nearly 20 million students en- rolled in these institutions in the fall of 2019. Given the unique campus contexts, student demographics, and institutional supports available in higher education settings, students, faculty, and staff may enjoy ready access to prevention resources and campus climates supportive of mental health needs. Other higher education systems may be woefully underfunded and unable to support their community

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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during times of routine stresses and crises (Katz & Davison, 2014). For example, students attending community colleges had access to fewer mental health services when compared with peers at 4-year universities (Katz & Davison, 2014). They also presented with more pressing mental health concerns, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and substance use disorders (Katz & Davison, 2014), and reported lower frequencies of professional care for these concerns. Given that community college populations represent people who are first-generation students, are single parents, and have limited social economic resources, these students could benefit from extra support and targeted services from counselors and professionals in lo- cal communities (Kalkbrenner, Brown, Carlisle, & Carlisle, 2019). As you consider working with students in higher education settings, it is important to assess the availability of on-campus resources with a recognition that the programs may be limited. In this chapter, I explore crises and traumas in these myriad higher educa- tion contexts. I also discuss preventative measures and interventions that may be used to address these concerns.

Relational Foundations for Work in Higher Education Settings

I frame these crises and traumas experienced on college and university cam- puses from a relational-cultural lens. In Chapter 2, Jordan and Duffey provide a thorough and clear overview of the core principles of relational-cultural the- ory (RCT). I highlight a few principles salient to college and university cam- puses. RCT discusses the importance of authentic connection, recognizing that relationships continuously shift between connection and disconnection. College students, especially those in their first year of college and those who recently transferred colleges, can be particularly susceptible to feelings of disconnection as they attempt to create new friendships and social networks in their new set- ting. This sense of disconnection may contribute to loneliness, homesickness, and isolation.

Bullying in Higher Education A common image of bullying is that of elementary school children on a playground at recess being harassed, intimated, or physically attacked by one or more of their peers. However, bullying can happen at all ages and in every setting where people interact, including higher education settings. On college and university campuses, bullying takes many forms and can cause a great distress for those who are targets of such intimidation, harm, or coercion.

The Many Forms of Bullying on Campus

Bullying may occur between and among students, professors, staff, and ad- ministrators. It can rise on an individual level, such as when an administrator intimidates or coerces a faculty member, or it can occur on an organizational level, such as when faculty members within a department intimidate, harm, or attempt to coerce members of another department. Bullying can occur between individuals sharing similar levels of power and prestige (e.g., assistant profes-

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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sor to assistant professor, sophomore student to sophomore student, depart- ment chair to department chair) as well as between individuals in which a clear power differential exists (e.g., professor to student; wealthy, popular student to poor, unpopular student). See Sidebar 14.1 for information on bullying in higher education.

Bullying can take many diverse forms, including overt and covert bullying; di- rect and indirect bullying; on-ground and online bullying; and physical, psycho- logical, and social bullying. Overt bullying can be physical, verbal, or social, such as hitting, kicking, name calling, or deliberately excluding others. Covert bullying in- cludes subtle acts of aggression or intimidation, which may take many forms, such as nonverbal gestures, threatening looks, gossiping, divulging secrets or private information, furtive attempts to exclude or isolate, and microaggressions (Lloyd- Hazlett, Pow, & Duffey, 2016). Direct bullying consists of intimidation that occurs directly between the aggressor and the target, whereas indirect bullying involves multiple people, usually to harm another person’s reputation, exclude him or her from social groups, and damage his or her sense of self-worth. On-ground bullying involves subtle or overt acts that occur in person. Cyberbullying (or online bullying) involves the use of electronic devices to harm others and can take many forms. Some common experiences, according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2018, para. 1), include the following:

1. Posting comments or rumors about someone online that are mean, hurtful, or embarrassing

2. Threatening to hurt someone or telling them to kill themselves 3. Posting a mean or hurtful picture or video 4. Pretending to be someone else online to solicit or post personal or false infor-

mation about someone else 5. Posting mean or hateful names, comments, or content about any race, reli-

gion, ethnicity, or other personal characteristics online 6. Creating a mean or hurtful webpage about someone 7. Doxing, an abbreviated form of the word documents, is a form of online ha-

rassment used to exact revenge and to threaten and destroy the privacy of individuals by making their personal information public, including address- es; social security, credit card, and phone numbers; links to social media ac- counts; and other private data

Sidebar 14.1 • Bullying in Higher Education Have you ever thought about the bullying experience in higher education? There are several power dynamics at work within a university setting. This chapter talks about some of them (e.g., professor vs. student, department chair vs. professor, supervisor vs. supervisee). Most individuals in universities or community colleges are striving for academic success; however, bullying behaviors occur. How do you navigate the system? Are there times when you have seen (or experienced) bullying in higher education?

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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Physical bullying involves acts of violence toward another person, such as push- ing, punching, or kicking. Psychological bullying, also called verbal bullying, includes name calling and using threatening remarks. Relational bullying (or social bullying) includes attempts to sully individuals’ reputations, rupture their relationships, ex- clude them from social situations, and isolate them (Chester, Spencer, Whiting, & Brooks, 2017).

Frequency and Consequences of Bullying

Limited studies have provided some insight into the frequency of bullying in high- er education settings. Chappell et al. (2004) sampled 1,025 undergraduate students and reported that 25% witnessed on occasion a student bullying another student, 5% had occasionally been bullied by a fellow student, 13% witnessed an instruc- tor bully a student, and 4% reported that they had been bullied by an instructor. Although cyberbullying was occurring when the aforementioned study was pub- lished, access to and use of electronic devices to communicate have proliferated greatly since 2004. Exploring bullying in online settings, MacDonald and Roberts- Pittman (2010) surveyed 439 college students and found that 38% knew someone who was cyberbullied, 22% were targets of cyberbullying, and 8.6% engaged in cyberbullying themselves. The most prevalent media forms used to bully online were social media networks, followed by text messages, email, instant messaging, chat rooms, and websites.

Consequences of bullying for students on college campuses may include low academic motivation and success, feelings of anxiety and depression, relational difficulties (e.g., inhibition, shyness in intimate relationships), alcohol and drug abuse, aggressiveness, nonsuicidal self-injury, and suicidal thoughts and behav- iors (Young-Jones, Fursa, Byrket, & Sly, 2015). Bullied university employees expe- rience lower productivity, psychological pain, loneliness, and job resignation (Hol- lis, 2015). Employees of color and sexual minorities may be particularly vulnerable to persistent acts of harassment, intimidation, and threats. These may be overt acts, such as disrespectful hand gestures and racial epithets, or covert acts, such as microaggressions. It is important to note as well that bullying on college campuses is not always a unidirectional process from individuals with more power bullying those with less power. Bullying also may occur in the other direction, particularly with faculty of color, such as when students group together to harass or intimidate the professor.

Bullying on college campuses, although similar in many respects to bullying in other settings, may have some important differences to consider. First, in contrast to elementary and secondary school settings, college instructors may be less at- tuned to classroom management issues, particularly interpersonal dynamics be- tween and among students. Moreover, for some students, it is the first time they have been away from home for an extended period of time. They may have fewer supports and opportunities to nurture their relational resilience (Jordan, 2018) as they face overt and subtle forms of bullying in a new and unfamiliar context. Ad- ditionally, when bullied by a roommate, people may feel trapped in an abusive relational living situation.

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment permeates the social context on many higher education cam- puses (Wood, Hoefer, Kammer-Kerwick, Parra-Cardona, & Busch-Armendariz, 2018). Although it has been prevalent for years, it has received heightened atten- tion in the last few years because of the Me Too Movement. The toxicity of sexual harassment can sap relational and cognitive reserves and lead to impaired aca- demic performance, isolation, and increases in the use of alcohol and other sub- stances (Wood et al., 2018). College faculty, staff, and administrators also can be targets of sexual harassment, which can create an unsafe and hostile work envi- ronment, resulting in lower work satisfaction, decreased productivity, increased distress, and higher employee turnover. Inappropriate or negligent responses by institutions relative to sexual harassment claims also may have legal and accredi- tation ramifications.

The most common form of sexual harassment is sexual remarks, such as sexu- ally implicit or explicit comments about a person’s appearance or vulgar sexual jokes (Yoon, Stiller Funk, & Kropf, 2010). Excessive, unsolicited touching, such as the touching or rubbing of a person’s shoulders, also is a commonly reported form of sexual harassment. Another form of sexual harassment on college cam- puses is quid pro quo harassment (Smith, 2015). In quid pro quo sexual harassment, harassed individuals receive pressure from an individual with evaluative pow- ers over them to engage in sexual behaviors in exchange for some benefit. A com- mon example is a professor giving a student a desired grade on an assignment or in a class in exchange for a sexual activity. For staff and faculty members, super- visors may provide the opportunity for promotion or advancement in exchange for sexual favors.

Up-to-date information is sparse regarding the prevalence of sexual harassment on college campus. However, in 2005, Hill and Silva conducted a study with male and female undergraduates. Results revealed that 62% of female undergraduates and 61% of male undergraduates experienced one or more forms of sexual ha- rassment during college. Moreover, 41% of women and 36% of men experienced sexual harassment in their first year of college. College students are more likely to be harassed by their peers (Cantor et al., 2015), although faculty to student sexual harassment also occurs, as well as work supervisor to student harassment (Wolff, Rospenda, & Colaneri, 2017). In addition, women, sexual minorities, individuals working in low-paying and entry-level jobs, and younger students are more likely to be sexually harassed than men, heterosexual people, individuals employed in professional positions, and older students (Wolff et al., 2017). See Sidebar 14.2 for information on sexual harassment on campus.

Sidebar 14.2 • Sexual Harassment on Campus For some students, living in on-campus housing is their first experience in being away from home. Sexual harassment may be the last thing they expect to happen to them. However, sexual harassment can happen anywhere and anytime. How would you support students in these instances?

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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The backdrop of the college experience may contribute to undergraduate stu- dents’ susceptibility to sexual harassment. People newly graduated from high school come together and interact, largely without supervision. Many may con- sume alcohol during social interactions, which may increase the “opportunity for and occurrence of sexual harassment and assault” (Wolff et al., 2017, p. 362). Work- ing college students may be particularly susceptible to sexual harassment because they often work in entry-level, low-paying jobs in which they have little influence or power. The hierarchical nature of higher education also may create an environ- ment in which sexual harassment can thrive (Wolff et al., 2017).

Sexual Assault Sexual assault is also pervasive on college campuses and, like sexual harassment, has received a great deal of recent attention. Sexual assault is defined by a range of nonconsensual behaviors, from touch to rape (Neilson et al., 2018). Recent sta- tistics of sexual assault on college campuses indicate that 11.2% of undergraduate and graduate students experience sexual assault. For undergraduate students spe- cifically, 23.1% of female students and 5.4% of male students are raped or sexually assaulted. Female and male college-age students (ages 18–24) are 78% and 20%, respectively, more likely to be the victims of sexual assault compared with nonstu- dents of the same age. In addition, 21% of college students who identify as trans- gender, genderqueer, and nonconforming have experienced sexual assault (Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network [RAINN], 2019).

Sexual violence is more prevalent on college campuses than other types of crime, such as robberies. In fact, for every robbery on college campuses, there are two sexual assaults. College student survivors of sexual violence often do not report the offense to law enforcement. Approximately 20% of female students, compared with 32% of nonstudent females who are the same age, report sexual violence to law enforcement. Reasons given for not reporting sexual violence, in order of most frequent, include un- disclosed reasons, the belief that the event was a personal matter, fear of retaliation, the belief that the event was not sufficiently significant as to warrant a report, not wanting the perpetrator to get in trouble, the belief that police are unwilling or unable to be helpful, and the report was given but not to law enforcement (RAINN, 2019).

People who were sexually assaulted may experience anxiety, depression, dis- sociation, eating disorders, sleep disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or other mental health issues. People also may experience relationship difficulties as well as an increased likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors, such as exces- sive alcohol consumption, drug use, self-harm behaviors, and suicide. Survivors of sexual assault also may struggle academically. Although the effects of sexual assault can be serious and debilitating, it is important to note the strengths of sur- vivors, encourage relational resiliency, and understand that not all survivors of sexual assault experience PTSD or other mental health disorders (Bryant-Davis, Ullman, Tsong, & Gobin, 2011).

Title IX, established as part of the Education Amendments of 1972, requires that all educational institutions that receive federal funding respond to and correct all forms of discrimination in educational settings, which includes sexual offenses. This means that institutions are responsible for stopping the discrimination, in- cluding sexually inappropriate behavior, putting into place mechanisms to pre-

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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vent the behavior from reoccurring and addressing the negative effects of the dis- crimination. Title IX protects students, staff, faculty, and administrators against sexual harassment, gender-based discrimination, discrimination against pregnant women and parenting students, and sexual assault (Wood et al., 2018).

Other laws that protect students against sexual assault on college campuses in- clude the Clery Act of 1990, the Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act of 2013 (Campus SaVE), and campus climate surveys (Richards, 2016; Wood et al., 2018). The Clery Act is a federal law that overlaps with Title IX. It was named after Jeanne Clery, a student who was raped and murdered on a university campus in 1986. Following their daughter’s murder, Jeanne Clery’s parents lobbied the govern- ment to require schools to provide vital information about campus safety to stu- dents and employees. The act is aimed at promoting awareness of campus crimes by requiring higher education settings to report crime statistics on campus, alert members of the campus community about potential dangers, and publish annu- ally a campus security report that is to be shared with current and prospective students as well as employees of the university (Wood et al., 2018).

Campus SaVE is a 2013 provision of the Clery Act. It states that domestic vio- lence and stalking must also be incorporated into campus security reports. Like Title IX and the Clery Act, Campus SaVE applies to all educational institutions that receive financial aid. Under this act, higher education institutions must keep records of dating violence, sexual assault, domestic violence, and stalking on cam- pus. Colleges and universities also must ensure that victims of violence receive appropriate protections and accommodations. These accommodations and pro- tections must be granted even when a survivor does not report the offense to law enforcement. Examples of accommodations may include helping survivors find a new place of residence, different transportation options, a new academic class schedule, and different work situations. Institutions must also ensure that victims are aware of and know how to access supportive services on campus, such as health care, mental health counseling, and legal assistance.

Campus climate surveys, along with providing information about students’ general beliefs and attitudes of campus, provide information about sexual assault and campus violence. These surveys are important because they allow colleges and universities to understand the unique factors that contribute to safety or sex- ual violence on their campuses. The U.S. Department of Justice, Office on Violence Against Women (2016) has provided recommendations for best practices to im- prove the utility of these surveys. These practices include ensuring confidentiality, developing action plans with long-term goals, making the surveys accessible to electronic devices such as tablets and smartphones, providing incentives for par- ticipating in the survey, and developing questions in the survey that allow for the collection of specific data related to sexual violence on campus.

Violence in Higher Education Settings Violent acts such as mass shootings or intimate partner violence (IPV) occur on college campuses and can cause significant emotional, physical, and psychological distress. These events also can greatly affect individuals’ sense of and actual safety, security, and connection to others. In this section, I discuss IPV, also called dating violence or domestic violence, as well as indiscriminate mass shootings.

Introduction to Crisis and Trauma Counseling, edited by Thelma Duffey, and Shane Haberstroh, American Counseling Association, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6173695. Created from amridge on 2024-03-30 02:36:04.

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Interpersonal Violence

People who inflict IPV may threaten, demean, or control their partners. They may also engage in physical or sexual harm. It is more common among college couples than it is with any other group (Karakurt, Keiley, & Posada, 2013), with the preva- lence of IPV on college campuses being between 21% and 32% (National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 2016). The physical effects of IPV can range greatly and may include such injuries as bumps, bruises, headaches, broken bones, chronic pain, and death (Anasuri, 2016). Psychological effects of IPV may include depres- sion, anxiety, PTSD, and attachment issues (Sutherland, Fantasia, & Hutchinson, 2016). In addition, IPV victims may engage in self-injury, withdraw from others, and experience suicidal thoughts. They may also engage in smoking, risky alcohol behavior, using drugs, and risky sexual behaviors (Anasuri, 2016; Hays, Michel, Bayne, Neuer Colburn, & Smith Myers, 2015). People with few peer supports are more likely to remain in unhealthy relationships. Reasons why people engage in IPV against their partners are multilayered and complex. However, alcohol and drug intoxication are correlated with IPV, although not necessarily the causes of it. Moreover, unhealthy attachments in childhood, as well as fear of abandonment, may contribute to IPV behaviors (Anasuri, 2016).

Mass Shootings

The term mass shooting has been defined in various ways by different organiza- tions. The Federal Bureau of Investigation defined it as an incident in which four or more people are killed during one event or in multiple places that are in close proximity of each other (Krouse & Richardson, 2015). In 1966, at the Uni- versity of Texas, a gunman shot at individuals indiscriminately for 96 minutes from the observation deck of a tower, killing 14 people on campus and wound- ing 31 others (Neuberger, 2016). This shooter had shot and killed his wife and mother the night before. Forty years later, at Virginia Tech University, a gunman killed 32 students and faculty members and injured another 17 individuals in a classroom and dorms (Hong, Cho, & Lee, 2010). Rampage shootings, which may also be classified as mass shootings, take place on school premises or at functions connected with a school. They are carried out by a current or former student or employee. In these events, the shooters target specific students, staff, or fac- ulty members because of some type of symbolic significance these individuals have to the shooters (Newman & Fox, 2009). Between 2002 and 2008, there were five rampage shootings that occurred on college campuses in the United States (Newman & Fox, 2009).

Prevention and Intervention Strategies Strategies that institutions of higher education can use to prevent and intervene in crisis situations will vary on the basis of the crisis under consideration. However, what is important is that colleges and universities develop strategic and compre- hensive initiatives that focus on both prevention and treatment. In this section, I discuss preventative approaches and interventions that universities may con- sider related to bullying, sexual harassment, sexual assault, IPV, and other forms of physical violence.

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