Curriculum Foundations, PrinciPles,

and issues

S e v e n t h E d i t i o n

Allan C. Ornstein St. John’s University

Francis P. Hunkins University of Washington, Emeritus

G l o b a l E d i t i o n

Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • Sao Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan

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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and informa- tion posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change.

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The rights of Allan C. Ornstein and Francis P. Hunkins to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues, 7th edition, ISBN 978-0-134-06035-4, by Allan C. Ornstein and Francis P. Hunkins, published by Pearson Education © 2017.

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To all those who are dear to me and understand me: Jason, Joel, Stacey—and to my soulmate and wife, Esther. Love always.

— A. C. O.

To my wife, Dr. Patricia A. Hammill, my love, my friend, and my fellow educator, who views life as the ultimate experience. Also to my daughter, Leah D. Hunkins,

and my son, Frank P. Hunkins, whom I admire and love. To my grandchildren, Blake Francis Hunkins, Flora Eudia Hunkins, and Samuel James Lindsay-Hunkins: love and sincere wishes for good learning. And finally, to two special individuals,

Patricia E. Hunkins and Johanna Lindsay, admiration and love.

—F. P. H.

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4

AbouT ThE AuThorS

Allan C. ornstein is a professor of education at St. John’s University. He is a former Ful- bright-Hayes Scholar and has been a consultant for more than 60 different government and ed- ucation agencies, including the American Federation of Teachers, the National Association of Secondary School Principals, and the Educational Testing Service. Dr. Ornstein has published more than 400 articles and 55 books, recently including Contemporary Issues in Curriculum, Sixth Edition.

Francis P. hunkins was a professor of education specializing in general curriculum, curric- ulum development, curriculum issues, and curriculum theory in the College of Education at the University of Washington for 35 years. Since retiring, Dr. Hunkins has remained active in writing educational textbooks. As a past president, he also remains active in the American Association for Teaching and Curriculum.

During his tenure at the University of Washington, Dr. Hunkins served as chairperson of the area of curriculum and instruction (1995–2000). He also consulted widely with school sys- tems around the country. He twice was a visiting scholar at Monash University in Australia and was also a visiting scholar at the Hong Kong Institute of Education in 1999.

Over his career, he has written 21 educational textbooks and numerous articles for educa- tional journals. He makes his home with his wife, Dr. Patricia A. Hammill, in the Seattle area.

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5

PrEFACE

Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues, Seventh Edition, is a book for researchers, theoreticians, and practitioners of curriculum. It is a basic text for those studying curriculum planning, development, implementation, and evaluation, as well as a reference for teachers, supervisors, and administrators who participate in curriculum making.

The book is a comprehensive and thoroughly documented overview of the foundations, prin- ciples, and issues of curriculum. Foundations are the areas of study outside curriculum that have an impact on the field; principles are the means and methods used in reflecting about the totality of curriculum and in designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating curriculum; issues are the current and evolving educational, political, and social dynamics that influence the curriculum field.

New to this editioN The seventh edition has been thoroughly updated to address every aspect of curriculum founda- tions, principles, and issues. All chapters have been revised to reflect the latest scholarship and thinking regarding curriculum, writ large.

The following provide the specifics enacted in this new edition:

• All chapters begin with a listing of specific Learning Outcomes to guide students’ reading. • All chapters conclude with discussion questions designed to engage students in dialogue

concerning the content. • Several reference videos, corresponding to the presented subject matter (such as career

and technical education (CTE) and digital literacy), supplement the contents of each chap- ter, and can be accessed by entering the YouTube URL provided.

• Updated information is provided on the Common Core (Chapter 2), accountability ( Chapter 2), and universal pre-K (Chapter 5), which are some of the most significant reform initiatives.

• The importance of digital literacy and global skills in a 21st century curriculum, as well as the impact of technology (e.g., social media) on students’ cognitive development.

• Updates to discussion on major learning theories and principles (Chapter 4). • New content on executive function, social and emotional intelligences and learning, and non-

cognitive skills (like grit and perseverance) as critical components of curricula (Chapter 4). • New content on social foundations that provides bases for helping educators formulate

excellent curricula (Chapter 5). • Discussion on income inequality—a “defining” issue currently impacting schools and their curricula and challenging educators to formulate more equal opportunities for stu- dents (Chapter 5).

• Major discussions and reports on international achievement tests (including PISA, TIMSS, PIAAC, and PIRLS) as well as an emphasis on global issues and approaches to education in general and curriculum in particular (Chapters 5, 9, and 10).

• A new section on curriculum design theoretical frameworks: modern-influenced designs (constructivist perspective) and postmodernism-influenced designs (postconstructivist perspective) (Chapter 6).

• New discussion relating the technical-scientific approach to its modernist perspective (Chapter 7). • New discussion relating the nontechnical-nonscientific approach to its postmodernist,

postconstructivist perspective (Chapter 7).

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6 ❖ Preface

• Updated material relating modernist approaches to curriculum implementation (Chapter 8). • New information included on postmodernist approaches to curriculum implementation (Chapter 8).

• Expanded treatment of modernist and postmodernist approaches to curriculum evaluation (Chapter 9).

• Updated information on high-stakes testing (Chapters 9, 10). • Expanded discussion on five nations in the international community (Chapters 5, 10).

overview of the text The book consists of a one-chapter introduction to the field plus three major parts. Part I, “Foundations of Curriculum,” has four chapters: one each on the curriculum’s philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations. Part II, “Principles of Curriculum,” is composed of chapters on curriculum design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Part III, “Curriculum Issues and the World Scene,” consists of one chapter, “International Scenes in Education.”

This book differs from other curriculum texts in several ways. Most texts focus on either theory or practice. Some texts advance a particular political or social position. Others approach the field of curriculum as an administrative challenge. This text provides a balanced and compre- hensive view of the field of curriculum. We have avoided taking a particular philosophical, educa- tional, political, or social stance. Instead, we have aimed at providing a complete view of the field of curriculum so that readers can consider choices and formulate their own views on curriculum foundations, principles, and issues. In short, we have supplied a mix of materials to help research- ers and practitioners develop their own interpretations of the field—past, present, and future.

This seventh edition provides the following instructional and learning tools: Learning Out- comes for each chapter, Curriculum Tips, Overview Tables, and Discussion Questions to conclude each chapter. Learning Outcomes furnish the reader with what is minimally expected of him or her. The Curriculum Tips give practical meaning to the research and insights into the curriculum process. The Overview Tables enhance more meaningful learning and provide recaps of the major concepts and principles in the chapter. Discussion Questions challenge the reader to engage fellow students in reviews of the chapter content and to expand their grasp of the chapter’s information.

Additionally and hopefully, the reader in engaging the content of this text will be stirred emotionally to relish the curricular challenges known and emergent in the 21st century. Ideally, the reader will recognize and accept the role of curricularist.

AckNowledgmeNts Every textbook results from the participation of many people. We are grateful to all. We particularly thank those who reviewed the manuscript: James Burton Browning, Coastal Carolina University, and Leigh Chiarelott, University of Toledo.

Special thanks are extended to Dr. Norman Eng, an adjunct assistant professor at the City University of New York, Brooklyn College and City College of New York, for his revision work on Chapters 1 through 5. His work focuses on 21st century education reform and inequality. Dr. Eng also maintains an education blog called The Educated Society.

—A. C. O. —F. P. H.

globAl editioN AckNowledgemeNts

Pearson would like to thank Shanti Divaharan, National Institute of Education, Singapore, and Pooja Thakur, Writer, for their contributions to the content of this Global Edition. In addition, Pearson would like to thank Christina Lim-Ratnam, National Institute of Education, Singapore; Pak Tee NG, National Institute of Education, Singapore; Timothy Lynch, Plymouth University; and Cheng Yong Tan, The University of Hong Kong, for reviewing the content of this Global Edition.

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7

briEF ConTEnTS

Chapter 1 The Field of Curriculum 19

Chapter 2 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum 46

Chapter 3 Historical Foundations of Curriculum 75

Chapter 4 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum 112

Chapter 5 Social Foundations of Curriculum 151

Chapter 6 Curriculum Design 176

Chapter 7 Curriculum Development 208

Chapter 8 Curriculum Implementation 256

Chapter 9 Curriculum Evaluation 286

Chapter 10 International Scenes in Education 330

Name Index 369 Subject Index 373

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8

ConTEnTS

Chapter 1 THE FIELD OF CURRICULUM 19 Curriculum Approaches 20

Behavioral Approach 20 Managerial Approach 21 Systems Approach 23 Academic Approach 24 Humanistic Approach 25 Postmodern Approach 26

Definition of Curriculum 26 The Challenges of Definition 27 Background Issues for Defining the Field 27 Fundamental Questions 28

Foundations of Curriculum 28 Curriculum Domains 30

Curriculum Development 30 Curriculum Design 31 Planned and Unplanned Curriculum 32

Theory and Practice 33 From Theory to Practice 33 Curriculum Certification 35

The Roles of the Curriculum Worker 36 The Curriculum Worker’s Responsibilities 37 The Student’s Role 38 The Teacher and the Curriculum 38 The Principal and the Curriculum 39 Changing Professional Roles: Standards and Testing 40

Conclusion 41 Discussion Questions 41 Notes 41

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Chapter 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 46 Philosophy and Curriculum 47

Philosophy and the Curriculum Worker 47 Philosophy as a Curriculum Source 48

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Contents ❖ 9

Major Philosophies 49 Idealism 49 Realism 49 Pragmatism 50 Existentialism 50

Educational Philosophies 51 Perennialism 52 Essentialism: Reaffirming the Best and Brightest 54 Progressivism 57 Reconstructionism 62

Conclusion 69 Discussion Questions 70 Notes 70

Chapter 3 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 75 The Colonial Period: 1642–1776 75

Three Colonial Regions 76 Colonial Schools 76 Old Textbooks, Old Readers 77

The National Period: 1776–1850 78 Rush: Science, Progress, and Free Education 79 Jefferson: Education for Citizenship 79 Webster: Schoolmaster and Cultural Nationalist 79 McGuffey: The Readers and American Virtues 80

19th Century European Educators 81 Pestalozzi: General and Special Methods 81 Froebel: The Kindergarten Movement 82 Herbart: Moral and Intellectual Development 82 Spencer: Utilitarian and Scientific Education 83

The Rise of Universal Education: 1820–1900 84 Monitorial Schools 84 Common Schools 84 Elementary Schools 85 Secondary Schools 86 Academies 86 High Schools 87

The Transitional Period: 1893–1918 88 Reaffirming the Traditional Curriculum: Three Committees 89 Harris and Eliot: Two Conservative Reformers 91 Vocational Education 92 Pressure for a Modern Curriculum 93

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The Birth of the Field of Curriculum: 1918–1949 95 Bobbitt and Charters: Behaviorism and Scientific Principles 95 Kilpatrick: The Progressive Influence 97 The Twenty-sixth Yearbook 98 Rugg and Caswell: The Development Period 99 Eight-Year Study 100 Tyler: Basic Principles 101 Goodlad: School Reform 102 Pinar: Reconceptualizing Curriculum Theory 105 Freire: From “Banking Concept” of Education to Problem Posing 106

Current Focus 106 Conclusion 107 Discussion Questions 107 Notes 108

Chapter 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 112 Behaviorism 113

Connectionism 113 Thorndike’s Influence: Tyler, Taba, and Bruner 114 Behaviorist Reinforcement Theory 115 Operant Conditioning 116 Acquiring New Operants 116 Behaviorism and Curriculum 119

Cognitive Psychology 121 Cognitive Perspective 121 The Montessori Method 122 Jean Piaget’s Theories 123 Piaget’s Influence: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, and Kohlberg 124 Developmental Theories: Beyond Piaget 125 Bloom: Early Environment 126 Lev Vygotsky’s Theories 127 IQ Thinking and Learning 128 Constructivism 131 Brain Research and Learning 132 The Impact of Technology on the Brain and Learning 132 Problem Solving and Creative Thinking 133 Innovation and Technology 137 Cognition and Curriculum 138

Phenomenology and Humanistic Psychology 138 Gestalt Theory 139 Maslow: Self-Actualizing Individuals 139 Rogers: Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning 140

10 ❖ Contents

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Social and Emotional Intelligence 142 Positive Psychology and Mindsets 142 Phenomenology and Curriculum 143

Conclusion 145 Discussion Questions 146 Notes 146

Chapter 5 SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 151 Society, Education, and Schooling 151

Society and Modal Personality 152 Social and Developmental Theories 152 Changing American Society 154 Postmodern Society 155 Postindustrial Society: Bits and Bytes 155 Postnuclear Family 156 New Family Types 156

Moral/Character Education 157 Moral Conduct and Controversy 157 Moral Teaching 159 Moral Character 160 Performance Character 161 Binary Bits and Reading Habits 161

The Culture of the School 163 Conformity in Class 163 Coping and Caring 164

Culture of the Classroom 165 The Peer Group 166 Peer Culture and the School 167 Peer and Racial Groups 168 Social Class and Academic Achievement 169 Global Achievement 170

Conclusion 171 Discussion Questions 172 Notes 172

PART II PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM

Chapter 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 176 Complexities of Curriculum Design 176

Connecting Conceptions 178 Components of Design 179

Sources of Curriculum Design 179 Conceptual Framework: Horizontal and Vertical Organization 183

Contents ❖ 11

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Design Dimension Considerations 184 Scope 184 Sequence 185 Continuity 186 Integration 186 Articulation 187 Balance 187

Representative Curriculum Designs 188 Subject-Centered Designs 188 Learner-Centered Designs 193 Problem-Centered Designs 199 Curriculum Design Theoretical Frameworks 201 The Shadows within Curricula 202

Conclusion 203 Discussion Questions 204 Notes 204

Chapter 7 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 208 Technical-Scientific Approach (Modernist Perspective) 210

The Models of Bobbitt and Charters 211 The Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles 212 The Taba Model: Grassroots Rationale 213 The Backward-Design Model 214 The Task-Analysis Model 215

Nontechnical-Nonscientific Approach (Postmodernist, Postconstructivist Perspective) 217

The Deliberation Model 218 Slattery’s Approach to Curriculum Development 220 Doll’s Model of Curriculum Development 220

Enacting Curriculum Development 222 Establishing Curriculum Teams 223 Generating Aims, Goals, and Objectives 223 Selecting Curriculum Content 232 Selecting Curriculum Experiences 238 Selecting Educational Environments 239 The Final Synthesis 243

Participants in Curriculum Development 243 Teachers 243 Students 244 Principals 245 Curriculum Specialists 246 Assistant (Associate) Superintendents 246

12 ❖ Contents

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Superintendents 246 Boards of Education 247 Lay Citizens 247 The Federal Government 248 State Agencies 248 Regional Organizations 249 Other Participants 249

Conclusion 250 Discussion Questions 251 Notes 251

Chapter 8 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 256 The Nature of Implementation 257

Incrementalism 258 Communication 259 Support 260

Implementation as a Change Process 262 Types of Change 263 Resistance to Change 265 Stages of Change 269

Curriculum Implementation Models 270 Modernist Models 271 Postmodernist Models 275 Factors Affecting Implementation 276

Key Players 277 Students 277 Teachers 279 Supervisors 279 Principals 280 Curriculum Directors 280 Curriculum Consultants 280 Parents and Community Members 280

Conclusion 282 Discussion Questions 282 Notes 282

Chapter 9 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 286 The Nature and Purpose of Evaluation 291

Evaluation Questions 293 Definitions of Evaluation 294 Measurement versus Evaluation 295

Approaches to Evaluation 295 Scientific, Modernist Approach to Evaluation 295

Contents ❖ 13

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Humanistic, Postmodernist Approach to Evaluation 296 Scientific, Modernist Approach versus Humanistic, Postmodernist Approach 298 Utilitarian versus Intuitionist Approach 301 Intrinsic versus Payoff Approach 302 Formative and Summative Evaluation 302

Evaluation Models 306 Scientific Models, Modernist Models 307 Humanistic Models, Postmodernist Models 309 Action-Research Model 312

Testing 313 High-Stakes Tests 314 Norm-Referenced Tests 316 Criterion-Referenced Tests 317 Subjective Tests 319

Alternative Assessment 319 Human Issues of Evaluation 321 Challenges in the 21st Century 324

Conclusion 325 Discussion Questions 325 Notes 325

PART III ISSUES OF CURRICULUM

Chapter 10 INTERNATIONAL SCENES IN EDUCATION 330 Education in Particular Countries 334 Finland 335

Background 335 The Uniqueness of Finland 336 Finnish Education: Cultural Linchpin 337 Ministry of Education 337 The Finnish Educational System 337 Lessons from Finland 339

Australia 341 Background 341 The Australian Educational System 342 Teacher Education 344 Lessons from Australia 345

China 345 Background 345 The Chinese Education System 347 State Education Commission 347 Teacher Education 351 Lessons from China 351

14 ❖ Contents

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Contents ❖ 15

Singapore 352 Background 352 The Singapore Education System 352 Primary School Education 353 Secondary School Education 354 Post-Secondary Options 355 Teacher Education 355 Lessons from Singapore 356

Republic of South Africa 356 Background 356 The South African Education System 359 The Department of Education 360 Teacher Education 361 Lessons from South Africa 361

Conclusion 363 Discussion Questions 364 Notes 364

Name Index 369

Subject Index 373

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16

CurriCuluM TiPS

1.1 The Role of the Curriculum Supervisor 22 1.2 Translating Theory into Practice 34 2.1 Recognizing and Rewarding Academic Excellence 57 2.2 Affective Methods to Enhance Learning 61 3.1 The Need for Historical Perspective 81 3.2 Process of Historical Research 88 3.3 Enriching the Curriculum 97 3.4 Classifying Objectives 101 4.1 Behaviorism in Classroom Learning Situations 117 4.2 Teaching Critical Thinking 135 5.1 Principles for Improving Schools 162 6.1 Points to Consider When Contemplating Curriculum Design 184 6.2 Guidelines for Curriculum Design 187 6.3 The Curriculum Matrix 198 7.1 Conducting a Needs Analysis 213 7.2 Developing Goals at the School District or School Level 226 8.1 Priming Teachers and Students for Curriculum Implementation 279 9.1 Assessing the Curriculum Context 309 10.1 Ways to Address New Curricular Challenges 363

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17

VIDEOS FOR REFERENCE

1.1 The 21st Century Learner 1.2 Explicit and Implicit Curriculum 1.3 Curriculum vs. Standards 2.1 Hirsch and Cultural Literacy 3.1 What Is Career and Technical Education? 3.2 Testing and School Reform 4.1 Executive Function: Skills for Life and Learning 4.2 What the Internet is Doing to Our Brains 4.3 Social and Emotional Learning 5.1 Cultivating Performance Character 5.2 Student Engagement: Khan Academy Case Study 6.1 Brain Development of Young Children 6.2 Humans in the Natural World—An Integrated Curriculum 6.3 International Baccalaureate Schools 7.1 Backward Design 7.2 Creating 21st Century Curriculum Experiences 8.1 Using Professional Learning Communities 8.2 Resistance to Increased High-Stakes Testing 9.1 Value-added Measures Explained 9.2 Narrowing the Curriculum in School 10.1 PISA: Measuring Student Success Around the World 10.2 Finland: One of the Best Education Systems in the World 10.3 China’s College Entrance Exam 10.4 Unequal Education in South Africa

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19

1 LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Identify and differentiate the six curriculum approaches, and discuss which approach(es) educators tend to adopt

2. Define curriculum and articulate the challenges in defining it

3. Identify the commonly accepted foundations of curriculum

4. Explain why curriculum development, curriculum design, and planned/ unplanned curriculum are crucial curriculum knowledge domains

5. Discuss the challenges involved in translating curriculum theory into practice

6. Explain the roles that students, teachers, and principals may play in shaping curriculum

Curriculum as a field of study has been characterized as elusive, fragmentary, and confusing. Certainly, the field can be all that at times, but curriculum as a field of study is crucial to the health of schools and society. Whether we consider curriculum narrowly, as subjects taught in schools, or broadly, as experiences that individuals require for full participation in society, there is no denying that curriculum affects educators, students, and other members of society.

Given the plethora of books, articles, and treatises on curriculum, many people in the field feel frustrated with the continuing confusion. However, the field of cur- riculum is intended not to provide precise answers, but to increase our understanding of its complexities. Curriculum results from social activity. It is designed for both present and emerging purposes. Curriculum is a dynamic field.1

Analyzing the concept of curriculum in a broad context illuminates what

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