Reading Problems: Assessment and Teaching Strategies, Seventh Edition

Combines new and time-tested approaches for helping struggling readers of all ages

The seventh edition of this well-respected text introduces multiple approaches to teaching students with reading problems and presents them in an accessible, balanced, and readable format. Reading Problems: Assessment and Teaching Strategies is practical, presenting many informal assessment tools and multicultural strategies, research on intervention programs, and extensive descriptions of tests.

This edition also includes updated information about laws focused on education, including the transition from No Child Left Behind to Race to the Top and the Ameri- can Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Response to Intervention (RTI) is also a continued focus in this revision. Finally, the book emphasizes teaching reading to Eng- lish language learners (ELLs) and including all students in general education classes.

What Is New to the Seventh Edition? ◆ Case studies for chapters 8, 11, and 12. ◆ Procedures for monitoring students' progress to meet Response to Intervention

requirements. ◆ Discussion of the impact of the Common Core State Standards on literacy

instruction and assessment. ◆ Coverage of the changes in procedures for identifying students who are quali-

fied for additional support services. ◆ Strategies to meet the needs of English Language Learners, especially in the

areas vocabulary development and academic vocabulary development. ◆ The integration of technology into literacy instruction and assessment. ◆ Information on collaboration between reading specialists/literacy coaches and

general education teachers. ◆ Coverage of the changing roles of reading specialists/literacy coaches. ◆ A continuing discussion of specific reading skills, including phonemic aware-

ness, word recognition skills, fluency, vocabulary development, comprehension of narrative and informational text, and the integration of reading and writing.

◆ A MyEducationLab interactive website (www.myeducationlab.com) created to accompany this edition that includes videos, simulations, case studies, arti- facts, activities, and more to help prepare students for teaching careers.

Reading Problems

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Reading Problems Assessment and Teaching Strategies

7 E D I T I O N

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Joyce Holt Jennings Northeastern Illinois University

JoAnne Schudt Caldwell Professor Emerita, Cardinal Stritch University

Janet W. Lerner Professor Emerita, Northeastern Illinois University

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jennings, Joyce Holt. Reading problems: assessment and teaching strategies/Joyce Holt Jennings, Northeastern

Illinois University, JoAnne Schudt Caldwell, Professor Emerita at Cardinal Stritch University, Janet W. Lerner, Professor Emeritus, Northeastern Illinois University.—Edition: 7.

pages cm ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283780-4 ISBN-10: 0-13-283780-3

1. Reading disability. 2. Reading—Remedial teaching. I. Caldwell, JoAnne (JoAnne Schudt). II. Lerner, Janet W. III. Title.

LB1050.5.R53 2014 372.43—dc23

2013006574

Printed in the United States of America

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About the Authors

Joyce Jennings is Chair of the Department of Literacy Education at Northeastern Illinois University. She is a Professor of Literacy Education, teaching primarily in the areas of assessment and instructional leadership. She has directed several professional devel- opment projects with school districts in the areas of literacy instruc- tion and leadership. Dr. Jennings serves on the Executive Board of Directors for the Chicago Area Reading Association. She is also on the Board of Directors for Boundless Readers, a not-for-profit orga- nization that provides resources and professional development in literacy for classroom teachers. Dr. Jennings was named to the Hall of Honor of the Illinois Reading Council for her work as co-editor of the council's journal.

Janet W. Lerner is professor emerita at Northeastern Illinois University, where she served as professor and chairperson of the Department of Special Education. She received the J.E. Wallace Wallin Special Education Lifetime Achievement Award from the Council of Exceptional Children. She was awarded the Romain P. Mackie Award from the Pioneers Division of CEC. Dr. Lerner served as a general education teacher, a special education teacher, and a reading specialist at the elementary, middle school, and high school levels. Dr. Lerner has authored and coauthored numerous journal articles and books: Learning Disabilities and Related Mild Dis- abilities (2012, Wadsworth Cengage Learning) and Young Children with Special Needs (2006, Allyn and Bacon). Dr. Lerner is currently an adjunct professor in the P.A.C.E. program at National Louis University.

JoAnne Schudt Caldwell is professor emerita at Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. She is the author or coauthor of seven titles including The Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 and Intervention Strategies to Follow Informal Reading Inventory Assessment. She has received the Outstanding Service Award from the Wisconsin State Reading Association, as well as the Wisconsin Teacher Educa- tor of the Year Award and an Achievement Award from Marquette University School of Education.

v

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Contents

Preface xviii

1 Overview of Reading and Reading Problems 1

Introduction 2

Reading Problems: A National Dilemma 3 National Reading Levels 4 SAT and ACT Reading Scores Hit New Low 5 Reading Needs in Today’s World 5

Recent Influences on the Teaching of Reading 5 Response-to-Intervention 5 The National Reading Panel and the Components of Reading 7 Differentiated Instruction 8 Common Core Standards 10 Social Media and Reading 11

Key Elements of Teaching Reading 11 Early Literacy 11 Word Recognition 12 Reading Fluency 12 Reading Comprehension 12 Reading Vocabulary 13 Reading–Writing Connection 13 Enjoyment and Appreciation 14

Summary 14

References 15

2 Factors Associated With Reading Problems 18

Introduction 19

Neurological and Cognitive Factors 19 Differentiated Instruction 20 Working Memory 20 Cognitive Strategy Instruction 21

Environmental Factors 21 The Home Environment 21 The School Environment 23 The Social Environment 24 The Cultural Environment 24

vii

viii Contents

Emotional Factors 25

Intelligence and Intellectual Factors 26 Definitions of Intelligence 27 Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence 27 Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading Disability 27 Concerns About Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading Disability 28

Language Factors 30 Oral and Written Language 30 Receptive and Expressive Language 31 Systems of Oral Language 31 Speech Problems and Language Disorders 33 English Language Learners (ELLs) 34

Physical Factors 34 Hearing Impairment 34 Visual Impairment 35 Gender Differences 37 Other Physical Problems 37

Summary 37

References 38

3 Gathering Data to Develop Students’ Literacy Profiles 41

Introduction 42

Information About the Environment 43 Home Environment 43 School Environment 46 Social and Cultural Environments 49

Information About the Individual 51 Emotional Information 51 Information About Potential (Intelligence) 52 Physical Information 52 Information About Language Development 55

Methods of Collecting Information 56 Interview and Questionnaire 56 Informal Talks 58 School Records and Materials 58 Observation During Reading Lessons 59

Summary 59

References 60

Contents ix

4 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Assessments 62

Introduction 63

Using Both Formal and Informal Assessment 63 Norm-Referenced Tests 65 Criterion-Referenced Tests 65 Bias in Testing 66 Ethical Considerations 66 Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests 66 Standardization, Validity, and Reliability 68

Tests of General Reading Assessment 69 Group Survey Tests 69 Individual Survey Tests 72 Normed Oral Reading Tests 75

Diagnostic Reading Tests 76 Diagnostic Reading Batteries 76 Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas 79

Measuring Factors Related to Reading 80 Measuring Vocabulary and Language Development 80

Measuring Intelligence 80 Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment 81 Intelligence Tests That Should Be Administered by Psychologists 82 Intelligence Tests That Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading Specialists 85 Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores 87

Summary 87

References 88

5 Administering an Informal Reading Inventory 93

Introduction 94

Does the Student Have a Reading Problem and How Severe Is It? 94

What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? 95 Problems With Emergent Literacy 95 Problems With Word Recognition Accuracy 95 Problems With Reading Fluency 95 Problems With Comprehension 96 Problems With Language and Meaning Vocabulary 96

x Contents

Overview of Informal Assessment Measures 96

The Informal Reading Inventory 97 Obtaining Answers to General Assessment Questions 98 Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory 98 Interpreting the Scores of the IRI 110 Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs 117

IRIs and Response-to-Intervention 120

Combining IRI Assessment With Think-Alouds 121

Summary 124

References 124

6 Providing Instruction and Intervention Strategies 127

Introduction 128

A New Perspective on Intervention: Grade-Level Competence 128

Successful Intervention Programs 131 Individual Intervention Programs K–5 131 Group Intervention Programs K–5 133 Intervention Structures 6–12 135 Classroom Interventions 136

Guidelines for Teaching Struggling Readers 138 Set High Expectations 138 Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction 138 Use Read-Alouds to Expose Students to Higher-Level Text 139 Emphasize Reading for Meaning 139 Teach Students the Strategies That Good Readers Use 140 Make Assessment an Ongoing Component of Instruction 141 Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework 142 Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively 142 Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible 143 Instructional Support for Struggling Readers and RTI 144

Summary 144

References 145

7 Early Literacy 149

Introduction 150

Early Literacy Concepts 150 Oral Language Development 151 Listening Comprehension 153

Contents xi

Print Knowledge 153 Environmental Print 154 Alphabet Knowledge 155 Phonemic Awareness 155 Short-Term Phonological Memory 158 Rapid Naming 159 Visual Memory 160 Visual Perceptual Skills 160

Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts 161 Oral Language Development 161 Print Knowledge 165 Alphabetic Knowledge and Phonemic Awareness 167 Beginning Reading Vocabulary 170

Summary 170

References 171

8 Improving Word Knowledge: Word Recognition 174

Introduction 175

Stages of Word Recognition Development 175

Strategies for Identifying Words 176

Word Recognition and the Common Core Standards 177

Assessing Phonics Strategies 178 The Informal Reading Inventory 178 Tests of Phonics Patterns 179

Teaching Phonics Strategies 180 Letter–Sound Relationships 181 Organizing Phonics Instruction 182 Decoding Through Analogy 184 Combining Phonics and Meaning 185 Making Students Aware of Their Strategies 187 Dealing With Exceptions 187 Ideas for Practicing Phonics 187 Teaching Multisyllabic Words 188

Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies 191

Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies 192

Word Recognition Strategies and Response- to-Intervention (RTI) 193

Summary 194

Case Study 195

References 197

xii Contents

9 Improving Word Knowledge: Fluency 200

Introduction 201

The Role of Fluency in the Reading Process 201

Fluency and the Common Core Standards 203

Assessing Fluency 203 Listening to Students Read Orally 204 Determining Reading Rate 204 Timed Administration of Word Lists 206

General Guidelines for Fluency Development 206 Provide Models of Fluent Reading 206 Link Fluency Instruction to Meaning 207 Encourage Wide Reading 207 Avoid Unpracticed Oral Reading 207

Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context 208 Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text 208 Using Patterned Books 208 Assisted Oral Reading 209 Structured Repeated Reading 212 Performance Reading 213 Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective 214

Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation 216 Choosing Words for Instructional Focus 216 Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words 217 Strategies for Focusing on Words 217

Word Recognition Fluency and Response- to-Intervention (RTI) 219

Summary 220

Case Study 221

References 223

10 Vocabulary Development and Listening Comprehension 226

Introduction 227

Importance of Language to Reading 227 Problems With Language Development 227 Impact of Language Disability and Delay 227 Impact of Limited Experiences With Reading 228 Impact of Diverse Language Environments 228

Assessing Language Abilities 228 Informal Measures 229 Formal Measures 231

Contents xiii

Conditions That Foster Language Learning 232 Exposure to Rich Language 233 Active Participation 233 Planning for Vocabulary and Language Learning 233 Making Connections 234

Strategies for Fostering Language: Listening Comprehension 235 Reading Books to Students 235 Supplemented Shared Reading 237 Paired Story Reading 238 Directed Listening-Thinking Activity 238 Sentence Stretchers 239 Encouraging Verbal Expression 239

Strategies for Fostering Language: Meaning Vocabulary 241 Introducing Words Before Reading 242 Practicing and Reinforcing Meaning Vocabulary 244 Fostering Vocabulary Learning Through Rich Literate Experiences 246 Using Strategies to Figure Out Unknown Words 248

Using Poetry to Develop Language 255 Fostering the Development of Academic Vocabulary 256

Summary 257

References 258

11 Comprehension of Narrative Text 262

Introduction 263

Effective Reading Comprehension 263 The Purpose of Reading Is Comprehension 263 Comprehension Is an Active and Accurate Process 263 Comprehension Uses Background Knowledge 264 Comprehension Requires Higher-Level Thinking 265

Comprehending Narrative Materials 265 Narratives Inspire Imaginative Personal Responses 265 Narratives Have Story Organization 266

Assessing Abilities With Narrative Text 267 Measuring General Comprehension Ability 267 Judging the Comprehension of Specific Materials 268

A Strategic Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension 270 Improving Comprehension Before Reading 271 Building Background Knowledge 271 Making Predictions About Text 272 Reading a Story to Students 275

Improving Comprehension During Reading 276 The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 276 Monitoring Responses to Reading 279

xiv Contents

Making Mental Images 280 Constructing Content-Free Questions 282 Using Discussion Cards 283

Improving Comprehension After Reading 285 Comprehension Strategies That Develop an Understanding of Story Structure 285 Comprehension Strategies That Nurture Personal Response 289

Connecting the Literacy Experience 290 Conceptually Connected Instruction Using Themes 291 Studying Different Genres 291

Summary 293

References 293

Case Study 296

12 Comprehension of Informational Text 298

Introduction 299

Organization of Informational Text 299 Difficulties Presented by Informational Text 300 Importance of Informational Text 301

Informational Text and Grade-Level Competence 301

Informational Text and the Common Core Standards 301

Assessing Abilities With Informational Text Using the Informal Reading Inventory 303

Strategies for Helping Students Read Informational Text 304 Using Read-Alouds With Grade-Level Text 304 Content-Free Questions 307 Text Coding 309 Discussion Cards 311 Topic–Detail–Main Idea Strategy 313 Think-Aloud Strategy 315 Question–Answer Relationships 317

Strategies for Transforming Informational Text 318 Main Idea Grid 318 Idea-Mapping 319 Improving Comprehension of Informational Text and RTI 323

Summary 324

References 324

Case Study 326

Contents xv

13 Integrating Reading and Writing 329

Introduction 330

Importance of Teaching Writing 330

Assessing Writing 332

Writing Instruction 334 Writing Process 334 Supporting Students’ Writing 337

Personal Communication 339 Written Conversations 340 Personal Journals 341

Strategies for Integrating Reading and Writing 342 Writing and Reading Narrative Text 343 Writing and Reading Informational Text 349 Responding to Text 350

Writing With Poetry 355

Developing the Ability to Spell 357 Spelling Development 357 Spelling Assessment 358 Spelling Instruction 360

Handwriting 362

Summary 363

References 363

14 Literacy Instruction for Diverse Learners: English Language Learners, Literacy in a Culturally Diverse Society, Parents and Families, Adolescents and Adults With Reading Problems 368

Introduction 369

English Language Learners 369 Who Are ELLs? 369 Methods for Teaching ELL Students 370 Teaching Reading to ELL Students 370 Classroom Strategies for Teaching Reading to ELL Students 371

Literacy in a Culturally Diverse Society 372

The Important Role of Families and Parents in Fostering Literacy 375

You Read to Me and I’ll Read to You 375 Parent Workshops 375

xvi Contents

Adolescents With Reading Problems 376 Characteristics of Adolescents With Reading Problems 376 Special Considerations at the Secondary Level 377 Components of Effective Secondary Programs 377

Adults With Reading Problems 378 Postsecondary and College Programs 378

Summary 379

References 380

15 Literacy Instruction for Students With Special Needs 382

Introduction 383

Students With Disabilities 383

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 384

Response-to-Intervention 385

The Individualized Education Program 385 Contents of the IEP 385 Participants at IEP Meeting 386

Transition Services 386 Procedural Safeguards 386

Educational Environments 386

Learning Disabilities 387 Characteristics of Students With Learning Disabilities 387 Educational Settings for Students with Learning Disabilities 387 Eligibility of Students With Learning Disabilities for Special Education 388 Dyslexia 389

Providing Reading Instruction for Students With Special Needs 390 Adapting Standard Reading Methods for Students With Severe Reading Disabilities 390 Differentiated Instruction 392 Differences in Cognitive Processing 393 Multisensory Methods for Teaching Reading 393 Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program 396

Direct Instruction Reading Program 396

Summary 397

References 397

Contents xvii

16 Literacy Support as a Collaborative Process 400

Introduction 401

Changing Roles of Reading Specialists 401 Title I Programs 401 No Child Left Behind Act 403 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 404 Race to the Top 404 Narrowing the Achievement Gap 404

Role of the Reading Specialist in Assessment 406 Evaluation of Student Performance 406 Individual Diagnostic Procedures 407

Role of the Reading Specialist in Instruction 409 Working With Classroom Teachers 409 Working With Other Professionals 409 Reading Specialists as Literacy Leaders 410 Providing Support for Teachers 410 Providing Support for Paraprofessionals 411 Serving as Liaison Between Teachers and Administrators 413 Serving on Student Services Teams 413 Serving on the Instructional Intervention Team 416 Working With Parents 418 Literacy Advocates in the Community 421

Summary 421

References 422

Appendix A 424

Appendix B 447

Test Index 462

Name Index 464

Subject Index 471

Photo Credits 487

The purpose of this book is to help the many children, adolescents, and adults who encounter difficulty with reading. Designed as a text for both undergrad- uate and graduate students, Reading Problems: Assessment and Teaching Strategies

guides prospective and present teachers in assessing and teaching students who are struggling with reading and writing.

Reading Problems is a comprehensive survey of teaching strategies, formal and informal assessment, theory, and research. The reader will find information both from the field of reading and from allied fields, such as special education, bilingual edu- cation, medical science, and policy studies. Together, these areas provide a coherent framework for helping students with reading problems.

The seventh edition of Reading Problems combines new approaches with time-tested ones to provide teachers a wide variety of approaches from which to choose. Recent research has clarified the reading process and substantiated effective instructional strategies. New insights provide a rich source of innovative diagnostic and teaching methods.

Most of all, we hope that Reading Problems will be a valuable resource for teachers. Hundreds of instructional strategies are presented for immediate use by teachers. Many of the strategies are illustrated by “Strategy Snapshots” depicting examples of actual classroom use. These snapshots are from our own experiences in working with students in the Literacy Centers at our universities and with teachers and students in schools.

Chapters 1 through 5 present general information about the reading process and students with reading problems, the use of interviews to obtain information about factors related to reading, and an overview of assessment, including formal and infor- mal assessment, with an emphasis on the vast amount of information gained through administering and analyzing the results of an informal reading inventory.

Chapter 1 provides an overview of reading and reading problems, including response-to-intervention (RTI). Chapter 2 discusses factors associated with reading and their impact on development. Chapter 3 provides suggestions for gathering background information and pertinent data about students. Chapter 4 includes information about current norm-referenced and criterion- referenced assessments either used by reading specialists or that may need to be interpreted by reading specialists. Chapter 5 includes a section on using informal reading inventories as an RTI assessment tool.

Chapter 6 describes successful reading intervention programs, including group and classroom instructional models. The chapter presents a new perspective on intervention: defining intervention success in terms of grade-level competence.

Preface

xviii

Preface xix

Chapter 6 also describes recent interventions designed specifically for addressing RTI components.

Chapters 7 through 13 provide in-depth information about language processes, including early literacy, word recognition, fluency, vocabulary development, compre- hension of narrative and informational text, and writing. Each chapter includes special tools for assessment in these areas followed by principles of teaching and practical instructional strategies.

Chapter 7 includes a section on word recognition and the Common Core State Standards initiative. It also addresses RTI and offers strategies that are appropriate for all three tiers.

Chapter 8 discusses fluency with regard to both the Common Core State Standards and RTI. It also includes a case study describing the assessment and instruc- tion of a third grader who experienced problems with fluency.

Chapter 9 includes instructional practices for improving word recognition and discusses the importance of fluency to successful reading.

Chapter 10 discusses the development of oral and reading vocabulary and its relationship to reading and writing. A new emphasis is the development of academic vocabulary and support for English learners in vocabulary development.

Chapter 11 presents strategies to support comprehension of narrative text, with a specific emphasis on mega-strategies that provide for integration of strategies to support comprehension before, during, and after reading. This chapter also provides a case study of a student who read below his chronological grade level in narrative text.

Chapter 12 relates comprehension of informational text to the Common Core State Standards and RT

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