11 Sep Outline your top five major health issues the world faces today.? Write a reflection on why you believe these are the five most important health issues affect
Outline your top five major health issues the world faces today.
Write a reflection on why you believe these are the five most important health issues affecting today's world and provide supporting evidence for each. As you are writing, here are some things to consider:
- Is this an infectious disease?
- Have you considered any mental health disorders?
- Are there prevention methods for this disease?
- Are there any issues with access to health care or disparities to consider?
6 Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Causes of Death: 1900 and 2013
Causes of Death in 1900 Causes of Death in 2013
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Chapter 1
Introducing Health Psychology
Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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©2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to…
Recognize how the major causes of deaths have changed over the last century
Understand how factors such as age, ethnicity, income relate now to risk of disease and death
Contrast the biomedical model with the biopsychosocial model of health
Trace the expanding role of psychology in understanding physical health, from its roots in psychosomatic medicine and behavioral medicine to its current role in the field of health psychology
Familiarize yourself with the profession of health psychology, including how health psychologists are trained and the varied types of work that they do
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The Changing Field of Health
1.1
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Patterns of Disease and Death
Major strides in medical science helped the 20th century change the patterns of death and disease in the United States. Infectious diseases stopped being the primary cause of death for people, and heart disease, cancer, and stroke became the leading killers.
In fact, it wasn’t until 2020 when COVID-19 became the first infectious disease to be among the top causes of death in the United States, falling right behind heart disease and cancer.
While deaths attributed to unhealthy lifestyles began to fall in in the early 2000s, there are still indicators that can researchers can use to help better determine patterns. These include age, ethnicity, and income.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Causes of Death: 1900 and 2013
Causes of Death in 1900
Causes of Death in 2013
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Age and Death and Disease
When looking at Age as a factor in research on death and disease, it may seem obvious that older people are more likely to die than younger people, which is true. What researchers look at are the primary causes of death in certain age groups. For example, those who are 1 to 24 are more likely to die in accident, from personal injury, or homicide; while people who are over 45 are more likely to die of cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Due to the high number of older people dying, those numbers dominate much of the research, but looking at the causes of death for younger people shows off a completely different pattern.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ethnicity, Income, and Death and Disease
When looking at causes of death within ethnicities, one can observe that those from different ethnic backgrounds have different rates. European and African Americans die more from heart disease, while the leading cause of death for Asians and Hispanics is cancer.
Income is a major factor in causes of death and longevity. If you look at the numbers, it’s possible too why there might be some difference in ethnicities when their income levels are low. 10% of European Americans, 31% of African Americans, and 26% of Hispanics are below the poverty line.
In additional people with higher education also report better jobs, higher incomes, better health care access, fewer daily health symptoms, less stress, and healthier habits. 86% of European Americans, 81% of African Americans, and 59% of Hispanics graduate.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Ethnicity, Income, and Death and Disease Continued
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Changes in Life Expectancy (1 of 2)
During the 20th century the world saw a 30-year jump in life expectancy. Better medical care is a contributing factor, but it was infant mortality rates that brought the life-expectancy up more than anything. Between 1900 and 1990 the infant death rates dropped dramatically.
In addition, a better understanding of disease and disease prevention helped slow the spread of infectious diseases.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Changes in Life Expectancy (2 of 2)
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Escalating Cost of Medical Care
Over the years we have watched as medical costs have soared higher and faster than inflation. In 1970 the average per-person cost of medical care was $1067. In 2017 that cost had increased to $9,105, a meteoric rise of 850%.
Added into the mix are the cost of chronic diseases, which became more prevalent as the lifespan of people increased. Nearly 50% of the population suffers from a chronic medical condition of some kind, and 86% of medical dollars spent on chronic medical conditions, with 88% of prescriptions being written for chronic conditions.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
What is Health? (1 of 3)
Traditional view of health is the biomedical model which defines health as the absence of disease. It conceptualizes disease solely as a biological process that is a result of exposure to a specific pathogen. This model spurred the development of medical drugs and technology oriented toward removing the pathogens and curing disease.
This view of health is compatible with infectious diseases that were the leading cause of death 100 years ago.
As chronic disease began to replace infectious diseases as the leading cause of death, the biomedical model became insufficient (Stone, 1987).
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
This view sees health as a result of exposure to a specific pathogen (a disease causing organism). Removing the pathogen then would restore health. This does largely explain many infectious diseases (such as diarrhea and pneumonia)—though see “Would You Believe…?” box on pp. 10 to see how this model cannot explain who does and does not get the common cold.
©2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
What is Health? (2 of 3)
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What is Health? (3 of 3)
A new approach to health known as the Biopsychosocial Model looks at additional factors when defining health. By looking at biological, psychological, and social influences such as genetics, physiology, social support, personal control, stress, compliance, personality, poverty, ethnic background, and cultural beliefs.
This Model has at least two advantages. It incorporates psychological and social factors, and it views health as a positive condition. It sees health as more than the absence of disease. For example, a person with no disease condition is not sick, but may not be healthy. Leading an unhealthy lifestyle increase the risk for future disease.
Because health is seen as including all aspects of living, the World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Psychology’s Relevance for Health
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Discussion 1
When you think of psychology’s relationship to health, what do you think of?
Do you think of the role of psychology in preventing disease? In addressing behavioral risk factors like tobacco use or in persuading people to get preventive care like immunizations?
Do you think of the role of psychology in treating disease? In helping people develop healthy ways to deal with stress or in helping people deal with the realities of a diagnosis? What about in the treatment of mental disorders?
What other relationships does psychology have to health?
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Role of Psychology
Psychology is the science of behavior. It is more relevant to health care than ever before because behavior is so important in the formation of chronic disease.
In 1911 the American Psychological Association (APA) recommended that psychology be part of the medical school curriculum. Most schools did not follow this recommendation until the 1940s and 1950s.
From 1969 to 1993 the psychologists with academic appointments in universities tripled.
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The Contribution of Psychosomatic Medicine (1 of 2)
The Biopsychosocial model recognizes that psychological and emotional factors contribute to physical health problems. It’s an idea that Socrates and Hippocrates proposed in their times. While Freud also proposed that unconscious psychological factors could contribute to physical symptoms.
It wasn’t until 1932 that Walter Cannon observed that emotions are accompanied by physiological changes. This led to researchers wanting to tie emotional causes to illness. Walter Cannon in 1932 demonstrated that emotions can cause physiological changes that can result in disease.
Helen Flanders Dunbar hypothesized a relationship between personality type and disease in 1943, which led Franz Alexander to notice emotional conflicts as the precursor to certain diseases in 1950.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Contribution of Psychosomatic Medicine (2 of 2)
The Biopsychosocial Model
Psychosomatic medicine benefited health care by connecting the emotional and physical conditions, but it may have harmed it by belittling the psychological components of illness.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Emergence of Behavioral Medicine
Behavioral medicine arose as an interdisciplinary field focused on the development and integration of behavioral and biomedical science knowledge and techniques relevant to health and illness.
The integration of biomedical sciences with behavioral sciences, especially psychology, is a key component. Behavioral medicine attempts to use psychology and the behavioral sciences in conjunction with medicine to achieve better health.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Emergence of Health Psychology
In 1976 the American Psychological Association revealed that few psychologists conducted health research. The report envisioned a future in which psychologists would contribute to the enhancement of health and prevention of disease and in 1978, Health Psychology officially began with the establishment of Division 38 of the APA.
Health Psychology includes psychology’s contributions to the enhancement of health through the application of psychological principles to physical health areas. With its promotion of the biopsychosocial model, health psychology continues to grow.
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The Profession of Health Psychology
1.3
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©2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Training of Health Psychologists
Health psychologists are psychologists first and health care workers second. Once they have become a psychologist, they can choose to specialize in health care and study topics such as neurology, endocrinology, immunology, and epidemiology.
A clinical health psychologist must learn clinical skills and how to practice as part of a health care team. When a psychologist has medical training, they could choose to focus their knowledge in the areas of neurology, endocrinology, immunology, and epidemiology.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Work of Health Psychologists
The setting where you find a health psychologist will depend on what their specialty is. They could work in research at universities or government agencies focusing on behaviors related to the development and treatment of disease, or they could teach.
A clinical health psychologist works more closely with patients, generally as a part of a hospital or clinic. They may also work for themselves or be a part of an HMO network.
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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©2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Self-Assessment
What concepts related to health psychology were of most interest to you? Why?
What roles do you see for health psychologists in today’s world? What kind of contributions might health psychologists make? How can they help individuals? What about helping society as a whole?
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary
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Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary (1 of 1)
Now that you have completed this chapter, you should have learned how to:
Recognize how the major causes of deaths have changed over the last century
Understand how factors such as age, ethnicity, income relate now to risk of disease and death
Contrast the biomedical model with the biopsychosocial model of health
Trace the expanding role of psychology in understanding physical health, from its roots in psychosomatic medicine and behavioral medicine to its current role in the field of health psychology
Familiarize yourself with the profession of health psychology, including how health psychologists are trained and the varied types of work that they do
‹#›
Brannon, Updegraff & Feist, Health Psychology, 10th Edition. ©2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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What is Health Equity? | Health Equity | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/…ex.html#:~:text=Across%20the%20country%2C%20people%20in,compared%20to%20their%20White%20counterparts.[3/7/2023 6:13:59 PM]
Health Equity
Health Equity Home
What is Health Equity? On This Page
Factors Affecting Health Equity (Social Determinants of Health)
OMHHE’s Role in CDC’s CORE Commitment to Health Equity
What You Can Do to Promote Health Equity
References
Health equity is the state in which everyone has a fair and just opportunity to attain their highest level of health. Achieving this requires ongoing societal efforts to:
Address historical and contemporary injustices;
Overcome economic, social, and other obstacles to health and health care; and
Eliminate preventable health disparities.
To achieve health equity, we must change the systems and policies that have resulted in the generational injustices that give rise to racial and ethnic health disparities. Through its CORE strategy, CDC is leading this effort, both in the work we do on behalf of the nation’s health and the work we do internally as an organization.
[1,2]
Preventable Health Disparities Health disparities are preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by populations that have been disadvantaged by their social or economic status, geographic location, and environment. Many populations experience health disparities, including people from some racial and ethnic minority groups, people with disabilities, women, people who are LGBTQI+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
[1]
What is Health Equity? | Health Equity | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/…ex.html#:~:text=Across%20the%20country%2C%20people%20in,compared%20to%20their%20White%20counterparts.[3/7/2023 6:13:59 PM]
queer, intersex, or other), people with limited English proficiency, and other groups.
Across the country, people in some racial and ethnic minority groups experience higher rates of poor health and disease for a range of health conditions, including diabetes, hypertension, obesity, asthma, heart disease, cancer, and preterm birth, when compared to their White counterparts. For example, the average life expectancy among Black or African American people in the United States is four years lower than that of White people. These disparities sometimes persist even when accounting for other demographic and socioeconomic factors, such as age or income.
Communities can prevent health disparities when community- and faith-based organizations, employers, healthcare systems and providers, public health agencies, and policymakers work together to develop policies, programs, and systems based on a health equity framework and community needs.
[3]
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Factors Affecting Health Equity (Social Determinants of Health)
Social determinants of health are the conditions in the places where people live, learn, work, play, and worship that affect a wide range of health risks and outcomes. Long-standing inequities in six key areas of social determinants of health are interrelated and influence a wide range of health and quality-of-life risks and outcomes. Examining these layered health and social inequities can help us better understand how to promote health equity and improve health outcomes.
Social and Community Context (including Discrimination and Racism)
Healthcare Access and Use
Neighborhood and Physical Environment
Workplace Conditions
What is Health Equity? | Health Equity | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/…ex.html#:~:text=Across%20the%20country%2C%20people%20in,compared%20to%20their%20White%20counterparts.[3/7/2023 6:13:59 PM]
Education
Income and Wealth Gaps
OMHHE’s Role in CDC’s CORE Commitment to Health Equity
CDC is transforming its public health research, surveillance, and implementation science efforts to expand beyond listing the markers of health inequities to identifying and addressing the drivers of these disparities. Through the CORE strategy, CDC is integrating health equity as a foundational element across our work – from science and research, to programs, partnerships, and workforce. As part of the initiative, OMHHE has adopted four CORE goals.
Cultivate comprehensive health equity science
OMHHE will facilitate and accelerate health equity principles’ adoption across CDC programs, policies, data systems, and funding structures.
OMHHE is working to:
Standardize health equity language and principles.
Establish standards in health equity data collection.
Provide guidance on analyzing and using data to assess health equity and manage public health programs.
Incorporate health equity principles and data collection standards into Notice of Funding Opportunities that support research and non-research public health programs at the state and local level.
Potential Impact: National, state, local, tribal, and territorial public health staff will have a better
What is Health Equity? | Health Equity | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/…ex.html#:~:text=Across%20the%20country%2C%
